Category:Essenes (subject)

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The Essenes were one of the religious parties of Second Temple Judaism.

See also Qumran & Christian Origins

Overview

During the late Second Temple period, the Essenes became with the Pharisees the most popular opposition party against the leadership of the ruling party of the Sadducees. The Essenes seems to have represented the interests of "lower-class" Jews, who felt oppressed in this "evil" world.

Religiously, the Essenes were a reform movement. Contrary to the Sadducees and stronger than the Pharisees, they stressed the power of evil, which they saw as a result of superhuman causes--a disease that affects the capability of human beings to be good and do good. They believed that the Devil had become the ruler of this world and expected the restoration of the Kingdom of God at the end of time and the coming of an heavenly Messiah--an eschatological judge (the Son of Man), or an eschatological high priest (Melchizedek). They considered normative not only the five books of Moses and the Prophets, but also had "writings of their own", to which they attributed the same authority.

The Essenes denied any authority to the leaders of the Temple and the priesthood, which they considered irremediably corrupted. As a competing reform movement, they also criticized the theological positions of the Pharisees. Especially under the Hasmoneans the Essenes were subjected to persecution, but their strength proved to be greater of any attempt to suppress them.

The Essenes lived as separated groups within the people of Israel, forming strict communities which shared their goods and gathering for their own rituals (communal meals). Ancient sources and the Dead Sea Scrolls show that the Essenes were a very diverse movement. The Yahad, centered at Qumran, seemed to have been the most radical group, living a celibate life in the wilderness with little contacts with the rest of the population, waiting for the final battle in which the Children of Light would prevail against the Children of Darkness. The majority of Essenes however lived in urban communities, in villages and towns, including Jerusalem, practicing a less radical life.

The teachings of John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth, as recorded in the Gospels, present some striking similarities with the theology of the Essenes. The life of Early Christians was strongly influenced by the model of the Essene urban communities.

The Essenes apparently shared a role of leadership at the beginning of the Jewish War, when Ananus ben Ananus succeeded in creating a government of national unity with the Sadducees, the Pharisees and the Essenes. It is not clear what happened to the Essenes during and after the Jewish War, especially which role was played by the larger Essene community of Jerusalem. Their military leader John the Essene died in battle at an early stage in the War and Qumran was distroyed by the advancing Roman troops. With the destruction of the Temple, the Essenes vanished from history, even though many elements of their theology survived in Christianity.

The Essenes and Women

See Women (subject)

The Essenes in ancient sources

Our knowledge about the Essenes depends mainly on the writings of Flavius Josephus, Philo of Alexandria, and Pliny the Elder. Accepting, with the majority of scholarship today, the existence of some kind of connection between the Essenes and the group that lived in the site of Khirbet Qumran and between the latter and the Dead Sea Scrolls, these texts too can be accounted among the primary source available on the Essene movement.

Philo, Quod Omnis Probus liber sit, 75-91

75 XII. Moreover Palestine and Syria too are not barren of exemplary wisdom and virtue, which countries no slight portion of that most populous nation of the Jews inhabits. There is a portion of those people called Essenes, in number something more than four thousand in my opinion, who derive their name from their piety, though not according to any accurate form of the Grecian dialect, because they are above all men devoted to the service of God, not sacrificing living animals, but studying rather to preserve their own minds in a state of holiness and purity. 76 These men, in the first place, live in villages, avoiding all cities on account of the habitual lawlessness of those who inhabit them, well knowing that such a moral disease is contracted from associations with wicked men, just as a real disease might be from an impure atmosphere, and that this would stamp an incurable evil on their souls. Of these men, some cultivating the earth, and others devoting themselves to those arts which are the result of peace, benefit both themselves and all those who come in contact with them, not storing up treasures of silver and of gold, nor acquiring vast sections of the earth out of a desire for ample revenues, but providing all things which are requisite for the natural purposes of life; 77 for they alone of almost all men having been originally poor and destitute, and that too rather from their own habits and ways of life than from any real deficiency of good fortune, are nevertheless accounted very rich, judging contentment and frugality to be great abundance, as in truth they are. 78 Among those men you will find no makers of arrows, or javelins, or swords, or helmets, or breastplates, or shields; no makers of arms or of military engines; no one, in short, attending to any employment whatever connected with war, or even to any of those occupations even in peace which are easily perverted to wicked purposes; for they are utterly ignorant of all traffic, and of all commercial dealings, and of all navigation, but they repudiate and keep aloof from everything which can possibly afford any inducement to covetousness; 79 and there is not a single slave among them, but they are all free, aiding one another with a reciprocal interchange of good offices; and they condemn masters, not only as unjust, inasmuch as they corrupt the very principle of equality, but likewise as impious, because they destroy the ordinances of nature, which generated them all equally, and brought them up like a mother, as if they were all legitimate brethren, not in name only, but in reality and truth. But in their view this natural relationship of all men to one another has been thrown into disorder by designing covetousness, continually wishing to surpass others in good fortune, and which has therefore engendered alienation instead of affection, and hatred instead of friendship; 80 and leaving the logical part of philosophy, as in no respect necessary for the acquisition of virtue, to the word-catchers, and the natural part, as being too sublime for human nature to master, to those who love to converse about high objects (except indeed so far as such a study takes in the contemplation of the existence of God and of the creation of the universe), they devote all their attention to the moral part of philosophy, using as instructors the laws of their country which it would have been impossible for the human mind to devise without divine inspiration. 81 Now these laws they are taught at other times, indeed, but most especially on the seventh day, for the seventh day is accounted sacred, on which they abstain from all other employments, and frequent the sacred places which are called synagogues, and there they sit according to their age in classes, the younger sitting under the elder, and listening with eager attention in becoming order. 82 Then one, indeed, takes up the holy volume and reads it, and another of the men of the greatest experience comes forward and explains what is not very intelligible, for a great many precepts are delivered in enigmatical modes of expression, and allegorically, as the old fashion was; 83 and thus the people are taught piety, and holiness, and justice, and economy, and the science of regulating the state, and the knowledge of such things as are naturally good, or bad, or indifferent, and to choose what is right and to avoid what is wrong, using a threefold variety of definitions, and rules, and criteria, namely, the love of God, and the love of virtue, and the love of mankind. 84 Accordingly, the sacred volumes present an infinite number of instances of the disposition devoted to the love of God, and of a continued and uninterrupted purity throughout the whole of life, of a careful avoidance of oaths and of falsehood, and of a strict adherence to the principle of looking on the Deity as the cause of everything which is good and of nothing which is evil. They also furnish us with many proofs of a love of virtue, such as abstinence from all covetousness of money, from ambition, from indulgence in pleasures, temperance, endurance, and also moderation, simplicity, good temper, the absence of pride, obedience to the laws, steadiness, and everything of that kind; and, lastly, they bring forward as proofs of the love of mankind, goodwill, equality beyond all power of description, and fellowship, about which it is not unreasonable to say a few words. 85 In the first place, then, there is no one who has a house so absolutely his own private property, that it does not in some sense also belong to every one: for besides that they all dwell together in companies, the house is open to all those of the same notions, who come to them from other quarters; 86 then there is one magazine among them all; their expenses are all in common; their garments belong to them all in common; their food is common, since they all eat in messes; for there is no other people among which you can find a common use of the same house, a common adoption of one mode of living, and a common use of the same table more thoroughly established in fact than among this tribe: and is not this very natural? For whatever they, after having been working during the day, receive for their wages, that they do not retain as their own, but bring it into the common stock, and give any advantage that is to be derived from it to all who desire to avail themselves of it; 87 and those who are sick are not neglected because they are unable to contribute to the common stock, inasmuch as the tribe have in their public stock a means of supplying their necessities and aiding their weakness, so that from their ample means they support them liberally and abundantly; and they cherish respect for their elders, and honor them and care for them, just as parents are honored and cared for by their lawful children: being supported by them in all abundance both by their personal exertions, and by innumerable contrivances. 88 XIII. Such diligent practicers of virtue does philosophy, unconnected with any superfluous care of examining into Greek names render men, proposing to them as necessary exercises to train them towards its attainment, all praiseworthy actions by which a freedom, which can never be enslaved, is firmly established. 89 And a proof of this is that, though at different times a great number of chiefs of every variety of disposition and character, have occupied their country, some of whom have endeavored to surpass even ferocious wild beasts in cruelty, leaving no sort of inhumanity unpracticed, and have never ceased to murder their subjects in whole troops, and have even torn them to pieces while living, like cooks cutting them limb from limb, till they themselves, being overtaken by the vengeance of divine justice, have at last experienced the same miseries in their turn: 90 others again having converted their barbarous frenzy into another kind of wickedness, practicing an ineffable degree of savageness, talking with the people quietly, but through the hypocrisy of a more gentle voice, betraying the ferocity of their real disposition, fawning upon their victims like treacherous dogs, and becoming the causes of irremediable miseries to them, have left in all their cities monuments of their impiety, and hatred of all mankind, in the never to be forgotten miseries endured by those whom they oppressed: 91 and yet no one, not even of those immoderately cruel tyrants, nor of the more treacherous and hypocritical oppressors was ever able to bring any real accusation against the multitude of those called Essenes or Holy. But everyone being subdued by the virtue of these men, looked up to them as free by nature, and not subject to the frown of any human being, and have celebrated their manner of messing together, and their fellowship with one another beyond all description in respect of its mutual good faith, which is an ample proof of a perfect and very happy life.

75 ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἡ Παλαιστίνη Συρία καλοκἀγαθίας οὐκ ἄγονος, ἣν πολυανθρωποτάτου ἔθνους τῶν Ἰουδαίων οὐκ ὀλίγη μοῖρα νέμεται. λέγονταί τινες παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς ὄνομα Ἐσσαῖοι, πλῆθος ὑπερτετρακισχίλιοι κατ᾽ ἐμὴν δόξαν οὐκ ἀκριβεῖ τύπῳ διαλέκτου Ἑλληνικῆς παρώνυμοι ὁσιότητος, ἐπειδὴ κἀν τοῖς μάλιστα θεραπευταὶ θεοῦ γεγόνασιν, οὐ ζῷα καταθύοντες, ἀλλ᾽ ἱεροπρεπεῖς τὰς ἑαυτῶν διανοίας κατασκευάζειν ἀξιοῦντες. 76 οὗτοι τὸ μὲν πρῶτον κωμηδὸν οἰκοῦσι τὰς πόλεις ἐκτρεπόμενοι διὰ τὰς τῶν πολιτευομένων χειροήθεις ἀνομίας, εἰδότες ἐκ τῶν συνόντων ὡς ἀπ᾽ ἀέρος φθοροποιοῦ νόσον ἐγγινομένην προσβολὴν ψυχαῖς ἀνίατον· ὧν οἱ μὲν γεωπονοῦντες, οἱ δὲ τέχνας μετιόντες ὅσαι συνεργάτιδες εἰρήνης, ἑαυτούς τε καὶ τοὺς πλησιάζοντας ὠφελοῦσιν, οὐκ ἄργυρον καὶ χρυσὸν θησαυροφυλακοῦντες οὐδ᾽ ἀποτομὰς γῆς μεγάλας κτώμενοι δι᾽ ἐπιθυμίαν προσόδων, ἀλλ᾽ ὅσα πρὸς τὰς ἀναγκαίας τοῦ βίου χρείας ἐκπορίζοντες. 77 μόνοι γὰρ ἐξ ἁπάντων σχεδὸν ἀνθρώπων ἀχρήματοι καὶ ἀκτήμονες γεγονότες ἐπιτηδεύσει τὸ πλέον ἢ ἐνδείᾳ εὐτυχίας πλουσιώτατοι νομίζονται, τὴν ὀλιγοδεΐαν καὶ εὐκολίαν, ὅπερ ἐστί, κρίνοντες περιουσίαν. 78 βελῶν ἢ ἀκόντων ἢ ξιφιδίων ἢ κράνους ἢ θώρακος ἢ ἀσπίδος οὐδένα παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς ἂν εὕροις δημιουργὸν οὐδὲ συνόλως ὁπλοποιὸν ἢ μηχανοποιὸν ἤ τι τῶν κατὰ πόλεμον ἐπιτηδεύοντα· ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ ὅσα τῶν κατ᾽ εἰρήνην εὐόλισθα εἰς κακίαν· ἐμπορίας γὰρ ἢ καπηλείας ἢ ναυκληρίας οὐδ᾽ ὄναρ ἴσασι, τὰς εἰς πλεονεξίαν ἀφορμὰς ἀποδιοπομπούμενοι. 79 δοῦλός τε παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς οὐδὲ εἷς ἐστιν, ἀλλ᾽ ἐλεύθεροι πάντες ἀνθυπουργοῦντες ἀλλήλοις· καταγινώσκουσι τε τῶν δεσποτῶν, οὐ μόνον ὡς ἀδίκων, ἰσότητα λυμαινομένων, ἀλλὰ καὶ ὡς ἀσεβῶν, θεσμὸν φύσεως ἀναιρούντων, ἣ πάντας ὁμοίως γεννήσασα καὶ θρεψαμένη μητρὸς δίκην ἀδελφοὺς γνησίους, οὐ λεγομένους ἀλλ᾽ ὄντας ὄντως, ἀπειργάσατο· ὧν τὴν συγγένειαν ἡ ἐπίβουλος πλεονεξία παρευημερήσασα διέσεισεν, ἀντ᾽ οἰκειότητος ἀλλοτριότητα καὶ ἀντὶ φιλίας ἔχθραν ἐργασαμένη. 80 φιλοσοφίας τε τὸ μὲν λογικὸν ὡς οὐκ ἀναγκαῖον εἰς κτῆσιν ἀρετῆς λογοθήραις, τὸ δὲ φυσικὸν ὡς μεῖζον ἢ κατὰ ἀνθρωπίνην φύσιν μετεωρολέσχαις ἀπολιπόντες, πλὴν ὅσον αὐτοῦ περὶ ὑπάρξεως θεοῦ καὶ τῆς τοῦ παντὸς γενέσεως φιλοσοφεῖται, τὸ ἠθικὸν εὖ μάλα διαπονοῦσιν ἀλείπταις χρώμενοι τοῖς πατρίοις νόμοις, οὓς ἀμήχανον ἀνθρωπίνην ἐπινοῆσαι ψυχὴν ἄνευ κατοκωχῆς ἐνθέου. 81 τούτους ἀναδιδάσκονται μὲν καὶ παρὰ τὸν ἄλλον χρόνον, ἐν δὲ ταῖς ἑβδόμαις διαφερόντως. ἱερὰ γὰρ ἡ ἑβδόμη νενόμισται, καθ᾽ ἣν τῶν ἄλλων ἀνέχοντες ἔργων, εἰς ἱεροὺς ἀφικνούμενοι τόπους, οἳ καλοῦνται συναγωγαί, καθ᾽ ἡλικίας ἐν τάξεσιν ὑπὸ πρεσβυτέροις νέοι καθέζονται, μετὰ κόσμου τοῦ προσήκοντος ἔχοντες ἀκροατικῶς. 82 εἶθ᾽ εἷς μέν τις τὰς βίβλους ἀναγινώσκει λαβών, ἕτερος δὲ τῶν ἐμπειροτάτων ὅσα μὴ γνώριμα παρελθὼν ἀναδιδάσκει· τὰ γὰρ πλεῖστα διὰ συμβόλων ἀρχαιοτρόπῳ ζηλώσει παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς φιλοσοφεῖται. 83 παιδεύονται δὲ εὐσέβειαν, ὁσιότητα, δικαιοσύνην, οἰκονομίαν, πολιτείαν, ἐπιστήμην τῶν πρὸς ἀλήθειαν ἀγαθῶν καὶ κακῶν καὶ ἀδιαφόρων, αἱρέσεις ὧν χρὴ καὶ φυγὰς τῶν ἐναντίων, ὅροις καὶ κανόσι τριττοῖς χρώμενοι, τῷ τε φιλοθέῳ καὶ φιλαρέτῳ καὶ φιλανθρώπῳ. 84 τοῦ μὲν οὖν φιλοθέου δείγματα παρέχονται μυρία· τὴν παρ᾽ ὅλον τὸν βίον συνεχῆ καὶ ἐπάλληλον ἁγνείαν, τὸ ἀνώμοτον, τὸ ἀψευδές, τὸ πάντων μὲν ἀγαθῶν αἴτιον, κακοῦ δὲ μηδενὸς νομίζειν εἶναι τὸ θεῖον· τοῦ δὲ φιλαρέτου τὸ ἀφιλοχρήματον τὸ ἀφιλόδοξον, τὸ ἀφιλήδονον, τὸ ἐγκρατές, τὸ καρτερικόν, ἔτι δὲ ὀλιγοδεΐαν, ἀφέλειαν, εὐκολίαν, τὸ ἄτυφον, τὸ νόμιμον, τὸ εὐσταθές, καὶ ὅσα τούτοις ὁμοιότροπα· τοῦ δὲ φιλανθρώπου εὔνοιαν, ἰσότητα, τὴν παντὸς λόγου κρείττονα κοινωνίαν, περὶ ἧς οὐκ ἄκαιρον βραχέα εἰπεῖν. 85 πρῶτον μὲν τοίνυν οὐδενὸς οἰκία τίς ἐστιν ἰδία, ἣν οὐχὶ πάντων εἶναι κοινὴν συμβέβηκε· πρὸς γὰρ τῷ κατὰ θιάσους συνοικεῖν ἀναπέπταται καὶ τοῖς ἑτέρωθεν ἀφικνουμένοις τῶν ὁμοζήλων. 86 εἶτ᾽ ἐστὶ ταμεῖον ἓν πάντων καὶ δαπάναι κοιναί, καὶ κοιναὶ μὲν ἐσθῆτες, κοιναὶ δὲ τροφαὶ συσσίτια πεποιημένων· τὸ γὰρ ὁμωρόφιον ἢ ὁμοδίαιτον ἢ ὁμοτράπεζον οὐκ ἄν τις εὕροι παρ᾽ ἑτέροις μᾶλλον ἔργῳ βεβαιούμενον· καὶ μήποτ᾽ εἰκότως· ὅσα γὰρ ἂν μεθ᾽ ἡμέραν ἐργασάμενοι λάβωσιν ἐπὶ μισθῷ, ταῦτ᾽ οὐκ ἴδια φυλάττουσιν, ἀλλ᾽ εἰς μέσον προτιθέντες κοινὴν τοῖς ἐθέλουσι χρῆσθαι τὴν ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν παρασκευάζουσιν ὠφέλειαν. 87 οἵ τε νοσοῦντες οὐχ ὅτι πορίζειν ἀδυνατοῦσιν ἀμελοῦνται, τὰ πρὸς τὰς νοσηλείας ἐκ τῶν κοινῶν ἔχοντες ἐν ἑτοίμῳ, ὡς μετὰ πάσης ἀδείας ἐξ ἀφθονωτέρων ἀναλίσκειν. αἰδὼς δ᾽ ἐστὶ πρεσβυτέρων καὶ φροντίς, οἷα γονέων ὑπὸ γνησίων παίδων χερσὶ καὶ διανοίαις μυρίαις ἐν ἀφθονίᾳ τῇ πάσῃ γηροτροφουμένων. 88 τοιούτους ἡ δίχα περιεργίας Ἑλληνικῶν ὀνομάτων ἀθλητὰς ἀρετῆς ἀπεργάζεται φιλοσοφία, γυμνάσματα προτιθεῖσα τὰς ἐπαινετὰς πράξεις, ἐξ ὧν ἡ ἀδούλωτος ἐλευθερία βεβαιοῦται. 89 σημεῖον δέ· πολλῶν κατὰ καιροὺς ἐπαναστάντων τῇ χώρᾳ δυναστῶν καὶ φύσεσι καὶ προαιρέσεσι χρησαμένων διαφερούσαις οἱ μὲν γὰρ πρὸς τὸ ἀτίθασον ἀγριότητα θηρίων ἐκνικῆσαι σπουδάσαντες, οὐδὲν παραλιπόντες τῶν εἰς ὠμότητα, τοὺς ὑπηκόους ἀγεληδὸν ἱερεύοντες ἢ καὶ ζῶντας ἔτι μαγείρων τρόπον κατὰ μέρη καὶ μέλη κρεουργοῦντες ἄχρι τοῦ τὰς αὐτὰς ὑπομεῖναι συμφορὰς ὑπὸ τῆς τὰ ἀνθρώπεια ἐφορώσης δίκης οὐκ ἐπαύσαντο· 90 οἱ δὲ τὸ παρακεκινημένον καὶ λελυττηκὸς εἰς ἑτέρας εἶδος κακίας μεθαρμοσάμενοι, πικρίαν ἄλεκτον ἐπιτηδεύσαντες ἡσυχῇ διαλαλοῦντες, ἠρεμαιοτέρας φωνῆς ὑποκρίσει βαρύμηνι ἦθος ἐπιδεικνύμενοι κυνῶν ἰοβόλων τρόπον προσσαίνοντες, ἀνιάτων γενόμενοι κακῶν αἴτιοι, κατὰ πόλεις μνημεῖα τῆς ἑαυτῶν ἀσεβείας καὶ μισανθρωπίας ἀπέλιπον τὰς τῶν πεπονθότων ἀλήστους συμφοράς 91 ἀλλὰ γὰρ οὐδεὶς οὔτε τῶν σφόδρα ὠμοθύμων οὔτε τῶν πάνυ δολερῶν καὶ ὑπούλων ἴσχυσε τὸν λεχθέντα τῶν Ἐσσαίων ἢ ὁσίων ὅμιλον αἰτιάσασθαι, πάντες δὲ ἀσθενέστεροι τῆς τῶν ἀνδρῶν καλοκἀγαθίας γενόμενοι καθάπερ αὐτονόμοις καὶ ἐλευθέροις οὖσιν ἐκ φύσεως προσηνέχθησαν, ᾄδοντες αὐτῶν τὰ συσσίτια καὶ τὴν παντὸς λόγου κρείττονα κοινωνίαν, ἣ βίου τελείου καὶ σφόδρα εὐδαίμονός ἐστι σαφέστατον δεῖγμα.

Translation from: The Works of Philo Judaeus, the Contemporary of Josephus, Translated from the Greek, C. D. Yonge, 4 vols., London: Henry G. Bohn

Original text from: Norwegian Philo Concordance Project.

Philo, Hypothetica, in Paeparatio Evangelica 8,11

But our Lawgiver trained to community of living many thousands of his disciples, who are called Essenes because, as I suppose, of their holiness. They dwell in many cities of Judaea and many villages, and in large and populous societies. Their sect is formed not by family-descent, for descent is not reckoned among matters of choice, but on account of zeal for virtue and a longing for brotherly love. Accordingly there is among the Essenes no mere child, nor even a scarce-bearded lad, or young man; since of such as these the moral dispositions are unstable and apt to change in accordance with their imperfect age: but they are all men full-grown and already verging upon old age, as being no longer swept by the flood of bodily impulses, nor led by their passions, but in the enjoyment of the genuine and only real liberty. And their mode of life is an evidence of this liberty: none ventures to acquire any private property at all, no house, nor slave, nor farm, nor cattle, nor any of the other things which procure or minister to wealth; but they deposit them all in public together, and enjoy the benefit of all in common. And they dwell together in one place, forming clubs and messes in companies, and they pass their whole time in managing every kind of business for the common good. But different members have different occupations, to which they strenuously devote themselves, and toil on with unwearied patience, making no excuses of cold or heat or any changes of weather: but before the sun is up they turn to their usual employments, and hardly give up at its setting, delighting in. work no less than those who are being trained in gymnastic contests. For whatever occupation they follow, they imagine that these exercises are more beneficial to life, and more pleasant to soul and body, and more permanent than athletics, because they do not become unseasonable as the vigour of the body declines. For some of them labour in the fields, being skilled in matters relating to sowing and tillage, and others are herdsmen, being masters of all kinds of cattle; and some attend to swarms of bees. Others again are craftsmen in various arts, who, in order to avoid any of the sufferings which the wants of the necessaries of life impose, reject none of the innocent ways of gaining a livelihood. Of the men then who thus differ in occupation every one on receiving his wages gives them to one person who is the appointed steward: and he, on receiving them, immediately purchases the necessary provisions, and supplies abundance of food, and all other things of which man's life is in need. And they who live together and share the same table are content with the same things every day, being lovers of frugality, and abhorring prodigality as a disease of soul and body. Not only have they a common table, but also common raiment: for there are set out in winter thick cloaks, and in summer cheap tunics, so that any one who will may easily take'whichever he likes, since what belongs to one is considered to belong to all, and the property of all to be on the other hand the property of each one. Moreover if any of them should fall sick, he is medically treated out of the common resources, and attended by the care and anxiety of all. And so the old men, even if they happen to be childless, are wont to end their life in a very happy and bright old age, inasmuch as they are blest with sons both many and good, being held worthy of attention and honour by so many, who from free good will rather than from any bond of natural birth feel it right to cherish them. Further then as they saw with keen discernment the thing which alone, or most of all, was likely to dissolve their community, they repudiated marriage and also practised continence in an eminent degree. For no Essene takes to himself a wife, because woman is immoderately selfish and jealous, and terribly clever in decoying a man's moral inclinations, and bringing them into subjection by continual cajoleries. For when, by practising flattering speeches and the other arts as of an actress on the stage, she has deluded eyes and ears, then as having thoroughly deceived the servants she proceeds to cajole the master mind. And should she have children, she is filled with pride and boldness of speech, and what she formerly used to hint under the disguise of irony, all this she now speaks out with greater audacity, and shamelessly compels him to practices, every one of which is hostile to community of life. For the man who is either ensnared by the charms of a wife, or by force of natural affection makes children Ins first care, is no longer the same towards others, but has unconsciously become changed from a free man to a slave. So enviable then is the life of these Essenes, that not only private persons, but also great kings are filled with admiration and amazement at the men, and make their venerable character still more venerable by marks of approbation and honour.

Μυριους δὲ των γνωριμων ὁ ἡμέτερος νομοθέτης ηλειψεν ἐπι κοινωνιαν, οι καλοῦνται μὲν Εσσαιοι, παρὰ τὴν ὁσιότητά μοι δοκω τῆς προσηγοριας ἀξιωθέντες. οικοῦσι δὲ πολλὰς μὲν πόλεις τῆς Ιουδαιας, πολλὰς δὲ κωμας και μεγά.. λους και πολυανθρωπους ὁμιλους. εστι δ᾽ αὐτοις ἡ προαιρεσις οὐ γένει γένος γὰρ ἐφ᾽ ἑκουσιοις οὐ γράφεται, διὰ δὲ ζῆλον ἀρετῆς και φιλανθρωπιας .. ιμερον. Εσσαιων γοῦν κομιδϝ῀ νήπιος οὐδεις ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ πρωτογένειος η μειράκιον, ἐπει τά γε τούτων ἀβέβαια ηθη τ τῆς ἡλικιας ἀτελει συννεωτεριζονται· τέλειοι δ᾽ ανδρες και πρὸς γῆρας ἀποκλινοντες ηδη, μηκέθ᾽ ὑπὸ τῆς τοῦ σωματος ἐπιρροῆς κατακλυζόμενοι μηδ᾽ ὑπὸ των παθων ἀγόμενοι, τὴν .. ἀψευδῆ δὲ και μόνην οντως ἐλευθεριαν καρπούμενοι. μάρτυς δὲ τῆς ἐλευθεριας αὐτων ὁ βιος. ιδιον οὐδεις οὐδὲν ὑπομένει κτήσασθαι τὸ παράπαν, οὐκ οικιαν, οὐκ ἀνδράποδον, οὐ χωριον, οὐ βοσκήματα, οὐχ οσα αλλα παρασκευαι και χορηγιαι πλούτου· πάντα δ᾽ εις μέσον ἀθρόα καταθέντες κοινὴν καρποῦνται .. τὴν ἁπάντων ωφέλειαν. οικοῦσι δ᾽ ἐν ταὐτ, κατὰ θιάσους ἑταιριας και συσσιτια πεποιημένοι, και πάνθ᾽ ὑπὲρ τοῦ κοινωφελοῦς πραγματευόμενοι δια.. τελοῦσιν. ἀλλ᾽ ἑτέρων ετεραι πραγματειαι, αις ἐπαποδύντες ἀόκνως διαθλοῦσιν, οὐ κρυμόν, οὐ θάλπος, οὐχ οσα ἀέρος νεωτερισματα προφασιζόμενοι· πριν δ᾽ ηλιον ἀνασχειν ἐπι τὰ συνήθη τρεπόμενοι, δυομένου μόλις ἐπανιασι .. χαιροντες οὐχ ηττον των ἐν τοις γυμνικοις ἐξεταζομένων ἀγωσιν. ὑπολαμβάνουσι γὰρ αττ᾽ αν ἐπιτηδεύωσιν ειναι βιωφελέστερα και ἡδιω ψυχϝ῀ και σωματι τὰ γυμνάσματα και πολυχρονιωτερα των ἐν ἀθλήσεσι, μὴ συναφηβωντα .. τϝ῀ τοῦ σωματος ἀκμϝ῀. εισι γὰρ αὐτων οι μὲν γεηπόνοι, των περι σπορὰν και φυτουργιαν ἐπιστήμονες, οι δ᾽ ἀγελάρχαι, παντοδαπων θρεμμάτων ἡγε.. μόνες, ενιοι δὲ σμήνη μελιττων ἐπιτροπεύουσιν. αλλοι δὲ δημιουργοι των κατὰ τέχνας εισιν, ὑπὲρ τοῦ μηδὲν ων αι ἀναγκαιαι χρειαι βιάζονται παθειν, .. οὐδὲν ἀναβαλλόμενοι των εις πορισμὸν ἀνυπαιτιον. ἐκ δὴ των ουτως διαφερόντων εκαστοι τὸν μισθὸν λαβόντες ἑνι διδόασι τ χειροτονηθέντι ταμιϠ· λαβων δ᾽ ἐκεινος αὐτικα τἀπιτήδεια ωνειται και παρέχει τροφὰς ἀφθό.. νους και ταλλα ων ὁ ἀνθρωπινος βιος χρειωδης. οι δ᾽ ὁμοδιαιτοι και ὁμοτράπεζοι καθ᾽ ἑκάστην ἡμέραν εισι τοις αὐτοις ἀσμενιζοντες, ὀλιγοδειας ἐρασται, .. πολυτέλειαν ως ψυχῆς και σωματος νόσον ἐκτρεπόμενοι. κοινὴ δ᾽ οὐ τράπεζα μόνον, ἀλλὰ και ἐσθὴς αὐτοις ἐστι. πρόκεινται γὰρ χειμωνι μὲν στιφραι χλαιναι, θέρει δ᾽ ἐξωμιδες εὐτελεις, ως εὐμαρως ἐξειναι τ βουλομέν ην αν ἐθελήσϝ λαβειν, ἐπειδὴ και τὰ ἑνὸς ἁπάντων και τὰ πάντων εμπαλιν .. ἑνὸς ὑπειληπται. και μὴν ει τις αὐτων ἀσθενήσειεν, ἐκ των κοινων νοσηλεύεται, θεραπευόμενος ταις ἁπάντων ἐπιμελειαις και φροντισιν. οι δὲ δὴ πρεσβῦται καν ει τύχοιεν ατεκνοι, καθάπερ οὐ πολύπαιδες μόνον, ἀλλὰ και σφόδρα ευπαιδες, ἐν εὐτυχεστάτ και λιπαρωτάτ γήρϠ τὸν βιον ειωθασι καταλύειν, ὑπὸ τοσούτων προνομιας ἀξιούμενοι και τιμῆς, ἑκουσι γνωμϝ μᾶλλον η φύσεως ἀνάγκϝ .. θεραπεύειν ἀξιούντων. ετι τοινυν οπερ η μόνον η μάλιστα τὴν κοινωνιαν εμελλε διαλύειν, ὀξυδερκέστερον ιδόντες γάμον παρϝτήσαντο μετὰ τοῦ και διαφερόντως ἀσκειν ἐγκράτειαν. Εσσαιων γὰρ οὐδεις αγεται γυναικα, διότι φιλαυτον γυνὴ και ζηλότυπον οὐ μετριως και δεινὸν ἀνδρὸς ηθη παλεῦσαι .. και συνεχέσι γοητειαις ὑπαγαγέσθαι. μελετήσασα γὰρ θωπας λόγους και τὴν αλλην ὑπόκρισιν, ωσπερ ἐπι σκηνῆς, οψεις και ἀκοὰς οταν δελεάσϝ, .. διηπατημένων οια ὑπηκόων τὸν ἡγεμόνα νοῦν φενακιζει. παιδες δ᾽ ει γένοιντο, φρονήματος ὑποπλησθεισα και παρρησιας, οσα κατ᾽ ειρωνειαν πρότερον ὑπούλως ὑπϝνιττετο, ταῦτα ἀπ᾽ εὐτολμοτέρου θράσους ἐκλαλει και ἀναι.. σχυντοῦσα βιάζεται πράττειν, ων εκαστον κοινωνιας ἐχθρόν. ὁ γὰρ η γυναικὸς φιλτροις ἐνδεθεις η τέκνων ἀνάγκϝ φύσεως προκηδόμενος οὐκέτι πρὸς αλλους ὁ αὐτός ἐστιν, ἀλλ᾽ ετερος γέγονε λεληθως, ἀντ᾽ ἐλευθέρου δοῦλος. .. ουτως γοῦν ὁ βιος ἐστιν αὐτων περιμάχητος, ωστ᾽ οὐκ ιδιωται μόνον, ἀλλὰ και μεγάλοι βασιλεις ἀγάμενοι τοὺς ανδρας τεθήπασι και τὸ σεμνὸν αὐτων ἀποδοχαις και τιμαις ετι μᾶλλον σεμνοποιοῦσι.

Translation from: Eusebius Caesariensis, Evangelica praeparatio, trans. Edwin H. Gifford, 4 vols., Oxford: University Press, 1903

Original text from: Eusebius Werke, Band 8: Die Praeparatio evangelica, ed. Karl Mras, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1954-1956

Josephus, Jewish War, 2,119-161

119 For there are three philosophical sects among the Jews. The followers of the first of which are the Pharisees; of the second, the Sadducees; and the third sect, which pretends to a severer discipline, are called Essenes. These last are Jews by birth, and seem to have a greater affection for one another than the other sects have. 120 These Essenes reject pleasures as an evil, but esteem continence and the conquest over our passions, to be virtue. They neglect wedlock, but select other persons children, while they are pliable, and fit for learning, and esteem them to be of their kindred, and form them according to their own manners. 121 They do not absolutely deny the fitness of marriage, and the succession of mankind thereby continued; but they guard against the lascivious behaviour of women, and are persuaded that none of them preserve their fidelity to one man. 122 These men are despisers of riches, and so very communicative as raises our admiration. Nor is there anyone to be found among them who has more than another; for it is a law among them, that those who come to them must let what they have be common to the whole order,--insomuch that among them all there is no appearance of poverty or excess of riches, but everyone's possessions are intermingled with everyone's possessions; and so there is, as it were, one patrimony among all the brethren. 123 They think that oil is a defilement; and if anyone of them be anointed without his own approbation, it is wiped off his body; for they think to be sweaty is a good thing, as they do also to be clothed in white garments. They also have stewards appointed to take care of their common affairs, the special services of each officer being determined by the whole body. 124 They have no one certain city, but many of them dwell in every city; and if any of their sect come from other places, what they have lies open for them, just as if it were their own; and they go in to such as they never knew before, as if they had been ever so long acquainted with them. 125 For which reason they carry nothing at all with them when they travel into remote parts, though still they take their weapons with them, for fear of thieves. Accordingly there is, in every city where they live, one appointed particularly to take care of strangers, and to provide garments and other necessities for them. 126 But the dress and deportment of their bodies is such as children use who are in fear of their masters. Nor do they allow the replacement of garments or of shoes till be first torn to pieces, or worn out by time. 127 Nor do they either buy or sell anything to one another; but everyone of them gives what he has to him that needs it, and receives from him again in lieu of it what may be convenient for himself; and although there be no requital made, they are fully allowed to take what they want of whomever they please. 128 And as for their piety toward God, it is very extraordinary; for before sunrising they speak not a word about profane matters, but put up certain prayers which they have received from their forefathers, as if they made a supplication for its rising. 129 After this everyone of them are sent away by their curators, to exercise some of those arts wherein they are skilled, in which they labour with great diligence till the fifth hour. After which they assemble themselves together again into one place; and when they have clothed themselves in white veils, they then bathe their bodies in cold water. And after this purification is over, they all meet together in an apartment of their own, into which it is not permitted to any of another sect to enter; while they go, after a pure manner, into the dining room, as into a certain holy temple, 130 and quietly set themselves down; upon which the baker serves them loaves in order; the cook also brings a single plate of one sort of food, and sets it before everyone of them; 131 but a priest says grace before the meal; and it is unlawful for anyone to taste of the food before grace is said. The same priest, when he has dined, says grace again after the meal; and when they begin, and when they end, they praise God, as he that bestows their food upon them; after which they lay aside their [white] garments, and betake themselves to their labours again till the evening; 132 then they return home to supper, after the same manner; and if there is any strangers there, they sit down with them. Nor is there ever any clamour or disturbance to pollute their house, but they give everyone permission to speak in their turn; 133 which silence thus kept in their house, appears to foreigners like some tremendous mystery; the cause of which is that perpetual sobriety they exercise, and the same settled measure of food and drink that is allotted them, and that such as is abundantly sufficient for them. 134 And truly, as for other things, they do nothing but according to the injunctions of their curators; only these two things are done among them at everyone's own freewill, which are, to assist those who need it, and to show mercy; for they are permitted of their own accord to afford assistance to such as deserve it, when they stand in need of it, and to bestow food on those who are in distress; but they cannot give anything to their kindred without the permission of their curators. 135 They dispense their anger after a just manner, and restrain their passion. They are eminent for fidelity, and are the ministers of peace; whatever they say also is firmer than an oath; but swearing is avoided by them, and they esteem it worse than perjury; {a} for they say that he who cannot be believed without [swearing by] God is already condemned. 136 They also take great pains in studying the writings of the ancients, and choose out of them what is most for the advantage of their soul and body; and they inquire after such roots and medicinal stones as may cure their distempers. 137 But now, if anyone has a mind to come over to their sect, he is not immediately admitted, but he is prescribed the same method of living which they use, for a year, while he continues excluded: and they give him also a small hatchet, and the before mentioned belt, and the white garment. 138 And when he has given evidence, during that time, that he can observe their continence, he approaches nearer to their way of living, and is made a partaker of the waters of purification; yet is he not even now admitted to live with them; for after this demonstration of his fortitude, his temperament is tried two more years, and if he appear to be worthy, they then admit him into their society. 139 And before he is allowed to touch their common food, he is obliged to take tremendous oaths; that, in the first place, he will exercise piety toward God; and then, that he will observe justice toward men; and that he will do no harm to anyone, either of his own accord, or by the command of others; that he will always hate the wicked, and assist the righteous; 140 that he will ever show fidelity to all men, and especially to those in authority, because no one obtains the government without God's assistance; and that if he is in authority, he will at no time whatever abuse his authority, nor endeavour to outshine his subjects either in his garments, or any other finery; 141 that he will be perpetually a lover of truth, and propose to himself to reprove those who tell lies; that he will keep his hands clear from theft, and his soul from unlawful gains; and that he will neither conceal anything from those of his own sect, nor reveal any of their doctrines to others, no, not though anyone should compel him so to do at the hazard of his life. 142 Moreover, he swears to communicate their doctrines to no one any otherwise than as he received them himself; that he will abstain from robbery, and will equally preserve the books belonging to their sect, and the names of the angels {b} [or messengers]. These are the oaths by which they secure their proselytes to themselves. 143 But for those who are caught in any heinous sins, they cast them out of their society; and he who is thus separated from, them does often die after a miserable manner; for as he is bound by the oath he has taken, and by the customs he has been engaged in, he is not at liberty to partake of that food that he meets with elsewhere, but is forced to eat grass, and to famish his body with hunger, till he perish; 144 for which reason they receive many of them again when they are at their last gasp, out of compassion to them, as thinking the miseries they have endured till they came to the very brink of death, to be a sufficient punishment for the sins they had been guilty of. 145 But in the judgments they exercise they are most accurate and just, nor do they pass sentence by the votes of a court that is fewer than a hundred. And as to what is once determined by that number, it is unalterable. What they most of all honour, after God himself, is the name of their legislator [Moses]; whom, if anyone blaspheme, he is punished capitally. 146 They also think it a good thing to obey their elders, and the majority. Accordingly, if ten of them are sitting together, no one of them will speak while the other nine are against it. 147 They also avoid spitting in the midst of them, or on the right side. Moreover, they are stricter than any other of the Jews in resting from their labours on the seventh day; for they not only get their food ready the day before, that they may not be obliged to kindle a fire on that day, but they will not move any vessel out of its place, nor go to stool thereon. 148 Nay, on other days they dig a small pit, a foot deep, with a paddle (which kind of hatchet is given to them when they are first admitted among them;) and covering themselves around with their garment, that they may not affront the divine rays of light, they ease themselves into that pit, 149 after which they put the earth that was dug out again into the pit; and even this they do only in the more lonely places, which they choose out for this purpose; and although this easement of the body be natural, yet it is a rule with them to wash themselves after it, as if it were a defilement to them. 150 Now after the time of their preparatory trial is over, they are divided into four classes; and so far are the juniors inferior to the seniors, that if the seniors should be touched by the juniors, they must wash themselves as if they had intermixed themselves with the company of a foreigner. 151 They are long lived also; insomuch that many of them live more than a hundred years, by means of the simplicity of their diet; nay, as I think, by means of the regular course of life they observe also. They condemn the miseries of life, and are above pain, by the generosity of their mind. And as for death, if it will be for their glory, they esteem it better than living always; 152 and indeed our war with the Romans gave abundant evidence of what great souls they had in their trials, wherein, although they were tortured and distorted, burnt and torn to pieces, and went through all kinds of instruments of torment, that they might be forced either to blaspheme their legislator, or to eat what was forbidden them, yet could they not be made to do either of them, no, nor once to flatter their tormentors, or to shed a tear; 153 but they smiled in their very pains, and laughed those to scorn who inflicted the torments upon them, and resigned up their souls with great alacrity, as expecting to receive them again. 154 For their doctrine is this:--That bodies are corruptible, and that the matter they are made of is not permanent; but that the souls are immortal, and continue for ever; and that they come out of the most subtle air, and are united to their bodies as in prisons, into which they are drawn by a certain natural enticement; 155 but that when they are set free from the bonds of the flesh, they then, as released from a long bondage, rejoice and mount upward. And this is like the opinion of the Greeks, that good souls have their habitations beyond the ocean, in a region that is neither oppressed with storms of rain, or snow, or with intense heat, but that this place is such as is refreshed by the gentle breezes of a west wind, that is perpetually blowing from the ocean; while they allot to bad souls a dark and tempestuous den, full of never ceasing punishments. 156 And indeed the Greeks seem to me to have followed the same notion, when they allot the islands of the blessed to their brave men, whom they call heroes and demigods; and to the souls of the wicked, the region of the ungodly, in Hades, where their fables relate that certain persons, such as Sisyphus, and Tantalus, and Ixion, and Tityus, are punished; which is built on this first supposition, that souls are immortal; and from this are those exhortations to virtue and exhortations from wickedness collected; 157 whereby good men are bettered in the conduct of their life, by the hope they have of reward after their death, and whereby the vehement inclinations of bad men to vice are restrained, by the fear and expectation they are in, that although they should lie concealed in this life, they should suffer immortal punishment after their death. 158 These are the divine doctrines of the Essenes {c} about the soul, which lay an unavoidable bait for such as have once had a taste of their philosophy. 159 There are also those among them who undertake to foretell things to come, {d} by reading the holy books, and using various sorts of purifications, and being perpetually conversant in the discourses of the prophets; and it is but seldom that they miss in their predictions. 160 Moreover, there is another order of Essenes, {e} who agree with the rest as to their way of living, and customs, and laws, but differ from them in the point of marriage, as thinking that by not marrying they cut off the principal part of human life, which is the prospect of succession; nay rather, that if all men should be of the same opinion, the whole race of mankind would fail. 161 However, they try their spouses for three years' probation; and if they find that they have their natural purgations thrice, as trials that they are likely to be fruitful, they then actually marry them. But they do not use to accompany with their wives when they are with child, as a demonstration that they do not marry out of regard to pleasure, but for the sake of posterity. Now the women go into the baths with some of their garments on, as the men do with something girded about them. And these are the customs of this order of Essenes.

119 Τρία γὰρ παρὰ Ἰουδαίοις εἴδη φιλοσοφεῖται καὶ τοῦ μὲν αἱρετισταὶ Φαρισαῖοι τοῦ δὲ Σαδδουκαῖοι τρίτον δέ ὃ δὴ καὶ δοκεῖ σεμνότητα ἀσκεῖν Ἐσσηνοὶ καλοῦνται Ἰουδαῖοι μὲν γένος ὄντες φιλάλληλοι δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων πλέον 120 οὗτοι τὰς μὲν ἡδονὰς ὡς κακίαν ἀποστρέφονται τὴν δὲ ἐγκράτειαν καὶ τὸ μὴ τοῖς πάθεσιν ὑποπίπτειν ἀρετὴν ὑπολαμβάνουσιν καὶ γάμου μὲν παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς ὑπεροψία τοὺς δ᾽ ἀλλοτρίους παῖδας ἐκλαμβάνοντες ἁπαλοὺς ἔτι πρὸς τὰ μαθήματα συγγενεῖς ἡγοῦνται καὶ τοῖς ἤθεσιν αὐτῶν ἐντυποῦσι 121 τὸν μὲν γάμον καὶ τὴν ἐξ αὐτοῦ διαδοχὴν οὐκ ἀναιροῦντες τὰς δὲ τῶν γυναικῶν ἀσελγείας φυλαττόμενοι καὶ μηδεμίαν τηρεῖν πεπεισμένοι τὴν πρὸς ἕνα πίστιν 122 Καταφρονηταὶ δὲ πλούτου καὶ θαυμάσιον αὐτοῖς τὸ κοινωνικόν οὐδὲ ἔστιν εὑρεῖν κτήσει τινὰ παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς ὑπερέχοντα νόμος γὰρ τοὺς εἰς τὴν αἵρεσιν εἰσιόντας δημεύειν τῷ τάγματι τὴν οὐσίαν ὥστε ἐν ἅπασιν μήτε πενίας ταπεινότητα φαίνεσθαι μήθ᾽ ὑπεροχὴν πλούτου τῶν δ᾽ ἑκάστου κτημάτων ἀναμεμιγμένων μίαν ὥσπερ ἀδελφοῖς ἅπασιν οὐσίαν εἶναι 123 κηλῖδα δ᾽ ὑπολαμβάνουσι τὸ ἔλαιον κἂν ἀλειφθῇ τις ἄκων σμήχεται τὸ σῶμα τὸ γὰρ αὐχμεῖν ἐν καλῷ τίθενται λευχειμονεῖν τε διαπαντός χειροτονητοὶ δ᾽ οἱ τῶν κοινῶν ἐπιμεληταὶ καὶ ἀδιαίρετοι πρὸς ἁπάντων εἰς τὰς χρείας ἕκαστοι 124 Μία δ᾽ οὐκ ἔστιν αὐτῶν πόλις ἀλλ᾽ ἐν ἑκάστῃ μετοικοῦσιν πολλοί καὶ τοῖς ἑτέρωθεν ἥκουσιν αἱρετισταῖς πάντ᾽ ἀναπέπταται τὰ παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς ὁμοίως ὥσπερ ἴδια καὶ πρὸς οὓς οὐ πρότερον εἶδον εἰσίασιν ὡς συνηθεστάτους 125 διὸ καὶ ποιοῦνται τὰς ἀποδημίας οὐδὲν μὲν ὅλως ἐπικομιζόμενοι διὰ δὲ τοὺς λῃστὰς ἔνοπλοι κηδεμὼν δ᾽ ἐν ἑκάστῃ πόλει τοῦ τάγματος ἐξαιρέτως τῶν ξένων ἀποδείκνυται ταμιεύων ἐσθῆτα καὶ τὰ ἐπιτήδεια 126 καταστολὴ δὲ καὶ σχῆμα σώματος ὅμοιον τοῖς μετὰ φόβου παιδαγωγουμένοις παισίν οὔτε δὲ ἐσθῆτας οὔτε ὑποδήματα ἀμείβουσι πρὶν διαρραγῆναι τὸ πρότερον παντάπασιν ἢ δαπανηθῆναι τῷ χρόνῳ 127 οὐδὲν δ᾽ ἐν ἀλλήλοις οὔτ᾽ ἀγοράζουσιν οὔτε πωλοῦσιν ἀλλὰ τῷ χρῄζοντι διδοὺς ἕκαστος τὰ παρ᾽ αὐτῷ τὸ παρ᾽ ἐκείνου χρήσιμον ἀντικομίζεται καὶ χωρὶς δὲ τῆς ἀντιδόσεως ἀκώλυτος ἡ μετάληψις αὐτοῖς παρ᾽ ὧν ἂν θέλωσιν 128 Πρός γε μὴν τὸ θεῖον εὐσεβεῖς ἰδίως πρὶν γὰρ ἀνασχεῖν τὸν ἥλιον οὐδὲν φθέγγονται τῶν βεβήλων πατρίους δέ τινας εἰς αὐτὸν εὐχὰς ὥσπερ ἱκετεύοντες ἀνατεῖλαι 129 καὶ μετὰ ταῦτα πρὸς ἃς ἕκαστοι τέχνας ἴσασιν ὑπὸ τῶν ἐπιμελητῶν διαφίενται καὶ μέχρι πέμπτης ὥρας ἐργασάμενοι συντόνως πάλιν εἰς ἓν συναθροίζονται χωρίον ζωσάμενοί τε σκεπάσμασιν λινοῖς οὕτως ἀπολούονται τὸ σῶμα ψυχροῖς ὕδασιν καὶ μετὰ ταύτην τὴν ἁγνείαν εἰς ἴδιον οἴκημα συνίασιν ἔνθα μηδενὶ τῶν ἑτεροδόξων ἐπιτέτραπται παρελθεῖν αὐτοί τε καθαροὶ καθάπερ εἰς ἅγιόν τι τέμενος παραγίνονται τὸ δειπνητήριον 130 καὶ καθισάντων μεθ᾽ ἡσυχίας ὁ μὲν σιτοποιὸς ἐν τάξει παρατίθησι τοὺς ἄρτους ὁ δὲ μάγειρος ἓν ἀγγεῖον ἐξ ἑνὸς ἐδέσματος ἑκάστῳ παρατίθησιν 131 προκατεύχεται δ᾽ ὁ ἱερεὺς τῆς τροφῆς καὶ γεύσασθαί τινα πρὶν τῆς εὐχῆς ἀθέμιτον ἀριστοποιησάμενος δ᾽ ἐπεύχεται πάλιν ἀρχόμενοί τε καὶ παυόμενοι γεραίρουσι θεὸν ὡς χορηγὸν τῆς ζωῆς ἔπειθ᾽ ὡς ἱερὰς καταθέμενοι τὰς ἐσθῆτας πάλιν ἐπ᾽ ἔργα μέχρι δείλης τρέπονται 132 δειπνοῦσι δ᾽ ὁμοίως ὑποστρέψαντες συγκαθεζομένων τῶν ξένων εἰ τύχοιεν αὐτοῖς παρόντες οὔτε δὲ κραυγή ποτε τὸν οἶκον οὔτε θόρυβος μιαίνει τὰς δὲ λαλιὰς ἐν τάξει παραχωροῦσιν ἀλλήλοις 133 καὶ τοῖς ἔξωθεν ὡς μυστήριόν τι φρικτὸν ἡ τῶν ἔνδον σιωπὴ καταφαίνεται τούτου δ᾽ αἴτιον ἡ διηνεκὴς νῆψις καὶ τὸ μετρεῖσθαι παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς τροφὴν καὶ ποτὸν μέχρι κόρου 134 Τῶν μὲν οὖν ἄλλων οὐκ ἔστιν ὅ τι μὴ τῶν ἐπιμελητῶν προσταξάντων ἐνεργοῦσι δύο δὲ ταῦτα παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς αὐτεξούσια ἐπικουρία καὶ ἔλεος βοηθεῖν τε γὰρ τοῖς ἀξίοις ὁπόταν δέωνται καὶ καθ᾽ ἑαυτοὺς ἐφίεται καὶ τροφὰς ἀπορουμένοις ὀρέγειν τὰς δὲ εἰς τοὺς συγγενεῖς μεταδόσεις οὐκ ἔξεστι ποιεῖσθαι δίχα τῶν ἐπιτρόπων 135 ὀργῆς ταμίαι δίκαιοι θυμοῦ καθεκτικοί πίστεως προστάται εἰρήνης ὑπουργοί καὶ πᾶν μὲν τὸ ῥηθὲν ὑπ᾽ αὐτῶν ἰσχυρότερον ὅρκου τὸ δὲ ὀμνύειν αὐτοῖς περιίσταται χεῖρον τῆς ἐπιορκίας ὑπολαμβάνοντες ἤδη γὰρ κατεγνῶσθαί φασιν τὸν ἀπιστούμενον δίχα θεοῦ 136 σπουδάζουσι δ᾽ ἐκτόπως περὶ τὰ τῶν παλαιῶν συντάγματα μάλιστα τὰ πρὸς ὠφέλειαν ψυχῆς καὶ σώματος ἐκλέγοντες ἔνθεν αὐτοῖς πρὸς θεραπείαν παθῶν ῥίζαι τε ἀλεξητήριον καὶ λίθων ἰδιότητες ἀνερευνῶνται 137 Τοῖς δὲ ζηλοῦσιν τὴν αἵρεσιν αὐτῶν οὐκ εὐθὺς ἡ πάροδος ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ ἐνιαυτὸν ἔξω μένοντι τὴν αὐτὴν ὑποτίθενται δίαιταν ἀξινάριόν τε καὶ τὸ προειρημένον περίζωμα καὶ λευκὴν ἐσθῆτα δόντες 138 ἐπειδὰν δὲ τούτῳ τῷ χρόνῳ πεῖραν ἐγκρατείας δῷ πρόσεισιν μὲν ἔγγιον τῇ διαίτῃ καὶ καθαρωτέρων τῶν πρὸς ἁγνείαν ὑδάτων μεταλαμβάνει παραλαμβάνεται δὲ εἰς τὰς συμβιώσεις οὐδέπω μετὰ γὰρ τὴν τῆς καρτερίας ἐπίδειξιν δυσὶν ἄλλοις ἔτεσιν τὸ ἦθος δοκιμάζεται καὶ φανεὶς ἄξιος οὕτως εἰς τὸν ὅμιλον ἐγκρίνεται 139 πρὶν δὲ τῆς κοινῆς ἅψασθαι τροφῆς ὅρκους αὐτοῖς ὄμνυσι φρικώδεις πρῶτον μὲν εὐσεβήσειν τὸ θεῖον ἔπειτα τὰ πρὸς ἀνθρώπους δίκαια φυλάξειν καὶ μήτε κατὰ γνώμην βλάψειν τινὰ μήτε ἐξ ἐπιτάγματος μισήσειν δ᾽ ἀεὶ τοὺς ἀδίκους καὶ συναγωνιεῖσθαι τοῖς δικαίοις 140 τὸ πιστὸν ἀεὶ πᾶσιν παρέξειν μάλιστα δὲ τοῖς κρατοῦσιν οὐ γὰρ δίχα θεοῦ περιγενέσθαι τινὶ τὸ ἄρχειν κἂν αὐτὸς ἄρχῃ μηδέποτε ἐξυβρίσειν εἰς τὴν ἐξουσίαν μηδ᾽ ἐσθῆτί τινι ἢ πλείονι κόσμῳ τοὺς ὑποτεταγμένους ὑπερλαμπρύνεσθαι 141 τὴν ἀλήθειαν ἀγαπᾶν ἀεὶ καὶ τοὺς ψευδομένους προβάλλεσθαι χεῖρας κλοπῆς καὶ ψυχὴν ἀνοσίου κέρδους καθαρὰν φυλάξειν καὶ μήτε κρύψειν τι τοὺς αἱρετιστὰς μήθ᾽ ἑτέροις αὐτῶν τι μηνύσειν κἂν μέχρι θανάτου τις βιάζηται 142 πρὸς τούτοις ὄμνυσιν μηδενὶ μὲν μεταδοῦναι τῶν δογμάτων ἑτέρως ἢ ὡς αὐτὸς μετέλαβεν ἀφέξεσθαι δὲ λῃστείας καὶ συντηρήσειν ὁμοίως τά τε τῆς αἱρέσεως αὐτῶν βιβλία καὶ τὰ τῶν ἀγγέλων ὀνόματα τοιούτοις μὲν ὅρκοις τοὺς προσιόντας ἐξασφαλίζονται 143 Τοὺς δ᾽ ἐπ᾽ ἀξιοχρέοις ἁμαρτήμασιν ἁλόντας ἐκβάλλουσι τοῦ τάγματος ὁ δ᾽ ἐκκριθεὶς οἰκτίστῳ πολλάκις μόρῳ διαφθείρεται τοῖς γὰρ ὅρκοις καὶ τοῖς ἔθεσιν ἐνδεδεμένος οὐδὲ τῆς παρὰ τοῖς ἄλλοις τροφῆς δύναται μεταλαμβάνειν ποηφαγῶν δὲ καὶ λιμῷ τὸ σῶμα τηκόμενος διαφθείρεται 144 διὸ δὴ πολλοὺς ἐλεήσαντες ἐν ταῖς ἐσχάταις ἀναπνοαῖς ἀνέλαβον ἱκανὴν ἐπὶ τοῖς ἁμαρτήμασιν αὐτῶν τὴν μέχρι θανάτου βάσανον ἡγούμενοι 145 Περὶ δὲ τὰς κρίσεις ἀκριβέστατοι καὶ δίκαιοι καὶ δικάζουσι μὲν οὐκ ἐλάττους τῶν ἑκατὸν συνελθόντες τὸ δ᾽ ὁρισθὲν ὑπ᾽ αὐτῶν ἀκίνητον σέβας δὲ μέγα παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς μετὰ τὸν θεὸν τοὔνομα τοῦ νομοθέτου κἂν βλασφημήσῃ τις εἰς τοῦτον κολάζεται θανάτῳ 146 τοῖς δὲ πρεσβυτέροις ὑπακούουσιν καὶ τοῖς πλείοσιν ἐν καλῷ δέκα γοῦν συγκαθεζομένων οὐκ ἂν λαλήσειέν τις ἀκόντων τῶν ἐννέα 147 καὶ τὸ πτύσαι δὲ εἰς μέσους ἢ τὸ δεξιὸν μέρος φυλάσσονται καὶ ταῖς ἑβδομάσιν ἔργων ἐφάπτεσθαι διαφορώτατα Ἰουδαίων ἁπάντων οὐ μόνον γὰρ τροφὰς ἑαυτοῖς πρὸ μιᾶς ἡμέρας παρασκευάζουσιν ὡς μὴ πῦρ ἐναύοιεν ἐκείνην τὴν ἡμέραν ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ σκεῦός τι μετακινῆσαι θαρροῦσιν οὐδὲ ἀποπατεῖν 148 ταῖς δ᾽ ἄλλαις ἡμέραις βόθρον ὀρύσσοντες βάθος ποδιαῖον τῇ σκαλίδι τοιοῦτον γάρ ἐστιν τὸ διδόμενον ὑπ᾽ αὐτῶν ἀξινίδιον τοῖς νεοσυστάτοις καὶ περικαλύψαντες θοιμάτιον ὡς μὴ τὰς αὐγὰς ὑβρίζοιεν τοῦ θεοῦ θακεύουσιν εἰς αὐτόν 149 ἔπειτα τὴν ἀνορυχθεῖσαν γῆν ἐφέλκουσιν εἰς τὸν βόθρον καὶ τοῦτο ποιοῦσι τοὺς ἐρημοτέρους τόπους ἐκλεγόμενοι καίπερ δὴ φυσικῆς οὔσης τῆς τῶν λυμάτων ἐκκρίσεως ἀπολούεσθαι μετ᾽ αὐτὴν καθάπερ μεμιασμένοις ἔθιμον 150 Διῄρηνται δὲ κατὰ χρόνον τῆς ἀσκήσεως εἰς μοίρας τέσσαρας καὶ τοσοῦτον οἱ μεταγενέστεροι τῶν προγενεστέρων ἐλαττοῦνται ὥστ᾽ εἰ ψαύσειαν αὐτῶν ἐκείνους ἀπολούεσθαι καθάπερ ἀλλοφύλῳ συμφυρέντας 151 καὶ μακρόβιοι μέν ὡς τοὺς πολλοὺς ὑπὲρ ἑκατὸν παρατείνειν ἔτη διὰ τὴν ἁπλότητα τῆς διαίτης ἔμοιγε δοκεῖν καὶ τὴν εὐταξίαν καταφρονηταὶ δὲ τῶν δεινῶν καὶ τὰς μὲν ἀλγηδόνας νικῶντες τοῖς φρονήμασιν τὸν δὲ θάνατον εἰ μετ᾽ εὐκλείας πρόσεισι νομίζοντες ἀθανασίας ἀμείνονα 152 διήλεγξεν δὲ αὐτῶν ἐν ἅπασιν τὰς ψυχὰς ὁ πρὸς Ῥωμαίους πόλεμος ἐν ᾧ στρεβλούμενοί τε καὶ λυγιζόμενοι καιόμενοί τε καὶ κλώμενοι καὶ διὰ πάντων ὁδεύοντες τῶν βασανιστηρίων ὀργάνων ἵν᾽ ἢ βλασφημήσωσιν τὸν νομοθέτην ἢ φάγωσίν τι τῶν ἀσυνήθων οὐδέτερον ὑπέμειναν παθεῖν ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ κολακεῦσαί ποτε τοὺς αἰκιζομένους ἢ δακρῦσαι 153 μειδιῶντες δὲ ἐν ταῖς ἀλγηδόσιν καὶ κατειρωνευόμενοι τῶν τὰς βασάνους προσφερόντων εὔθυμοι τὰς ψυχὰς ἠφίεσαν ὡς πάλιν κομιούμενοι 154 Καὶ γὰρ ἔρρωται παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς ἥδε ἡ δόξα φθαρτὰ μὲν εἶναι τὰ σώματα καὶ τὴν ὕλην οὐ μόνιμον αὐτῶν τὰς δὲ ψυχὰς ἀθανάτους ἀεὶ διαμένειν καὶ συμπλέκεσθαι μὲν ἐκ τοῦ λεπτοτάτου φοιτώσας αἰθέρος ὥσπερ εἱρκταῖς τοῖς σώμασιν ἴυγγί τινι φυσικῇ κατασπωμένας 155 ἐπειδὰν δὲ ἀνεθῶσι τῶν κατὰ σάρκα δεσμῶν οἷα δὴ μακρᾶς δουλείας ἀπηλλαγμένας τότε χαίρειν καὶ μετεώρους φέρεσθαι καὶ ταῖς μὲν ἀγαθαῖς ὁμοδοξοῦντες παισὶν Ἑλλήνων ἀποφαίνονται τὴν ὑπὲρ ὠκεανὸν δίαιταν ἀποκεῖσθαι καὶ χῶρον οὔτε ὄμβροις οὔτε νιφετοῖς οὔτε καύμασι βαρυνόμενον ἀλλ᾽ ὃν ἐξ ὠκεανοῦ πραῢς ἀεὶ ζέφυρος ἐπιπνέων ἀναψύχει ταῖς δὲ φαύλαις ζοφώδη καὶ χειμέριον ἀφορίζονται μυχὸν γέμοντα τιμωριῶν ἀδιαλείπτων 156 δοκοῦσι δέ μοι κατὰ τὴν αὐτὴν ἔννοιαν Ἕλληνες τοῖς τε ἀνδρείοις αὐτῶν οὓς ἥρωας καὶ ἡμιθέους καλοῦσιν τὰς μακάρων νήσους ἀνατεθεικέναι ταῖς δὲ τῶν πονηρῶν ψυχαῖς καθ᾽ ᾅδου τὸν ἀσεβῶν χῶρον ἔνθα καὶ κολαζομένους τινὰς μυθολογοῦσιν Σισύφους καὶ Ταντάλους Ἰξίονάς τε καὶ Τιτυούς πρῶτον μὲν ἀιδίους ὑφιστάμενοι τὰς ψυχάς ἔπειτα εἰς προτροπὴν ἀρετῆς καὶ κακίας ἀποτροπήν 157 τούς τε γὰρ ἀγαθοὺς γίνεσθαι κατὰ τὸν βίον ἀμείνους ἐλπίδι τιμῆς καὶ μετὰ τὴν τελευτήν τῶν τε κακῶν ἐμποδίζεσθαι τὰς ὁρμὰς δέει προσδοκώντων εἰ καὶ λάθοιεν ἐν τῷ ζῆν μετὰ τὴν διάλυσιν ἀθάνατον τιμωρίαν ὑφέξειν 158 ταῦτα μὲν οὖν Ἐσσηνοὶ περὶ ψυχῆς θεολογοῦσιν ἄφυκτον δέλεαρ τοῖς ἅπαξ γευσαμένοις τῆς σοφίας αὐτῶν καθιέντες 159 Εἰσὶν δ᾽ ἐν αὐτοῖς οἳ καὶ τὰ μέλλοντα προγινώσκειν ὑπισχνοῦνται βίβλοις ἱεραῖς καὶ διαφόροις ἁγνείαις καὶ προφητῶν ἀποφθέγμασιν ἐμπαιδοτριβούμενοι σπάνιον δ᾽ εἴ ποτε ἐν ταῖς προαγορεύσεσιν ἀστοχοῦσιν 160 Ἔστιν δὲ καὶ ἕτερον Ἐσσηνῶν τάγμα δίαιταν μὲν καὶ ἔθη καὶ νόμιμα τοῖς ἄλλοις ὁμοφρονοῦν διεστὼς δὲ τῇ κατὰ γάμον δόξῃ μέγιστον γὰρ ἀποκόπτειν οἴονται τοῦ βίου μέρος τὴν διαδοχήν τοὺς μὴ γαμοῦντας μᾶλλον δέ εἰ πάντες τὸ αὐτὸ φρονήσειαν ἐκλιπεῖν ἂν τὸ γένος τάχιστα 161 δοκιμάζοντες μέντοι τριετίᾳ τὰς γαμετάς ἐπειδὰν τρὶς καθαρθῶσιν εἰς πεῖραν τοῦ δύνασθαι τίκτειν οὕτως ἄγονται ταῖς δ᾽ ἐγκύμοσιν οὐχ ὁμιλοῦσιν ἐνδεικνύμενοι τὸ μὴ δι᾽ ἡδονὴν ἀλλὰ τέκνων χρείαν γαμεῖν λουτρὰ δὲ ταῖς γυναιξὶν ἀμπεχομέναις ἐνδύματα καθάπερ τοῖς ἀνδράσιν ἐν περιζώματι τοιαῦτα μὲν ἔθη τοῦδε τοῦ τάγματος

Translation from: William Whiston, The Genuine Works of Flavius Josephus, New York: Borradaile, 1828

Original text from: Benedikt Niese, Flavii Iosephi opera, 6 vols., Berlin: Weidman, 1890

Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18,18-22

18 The doctrine of the Essenes is this:--That all things are best ascribed to God. They teach the immortality of souls, and esteem that the rewards of righteousness are to be earnestly striven for; 19 and when they send what they have dedicated to God into the temple, they do not offer sacrifices, {d} because they have more pure lustrations of their own; on which account they are excluded from the common court of the temple, but offer their sacrifices themselves; yet is their course of life better than that of other men; and they entirely give themselves over to husbandry. 20 It also deserves our admiration, how much they exceed all other men that give themselves over to virtue, and this in righteousness: and indeed to such a degree, that as it has never appeared among any other men, neither Greeks nor barbarians, no, not for a little time, so has it endured a long time among them. This is demonstrated by that institution of theirs, which will not allow anything to hinder them from having all things in common; so that a rich man enjoys no more of his own wealth than he who has nothing at all. There are about four thousand men that live in this way, 21 and neither marry wives, nor are desirous to keep servants; as thinking the latter tempts men to be unjust, and the former gives the handle to domestic quarrels; but as they live by themselves, they minister one to another. 22 They also appoint certain stewards to receive the incomes of their revenues, and of the fruits of the ground; such as are good men and priests, who are to get their grain and their food ready for them. They none of them differ from others of the Essenes in their way of living, but do the most resemble those Dacians who are called Ctistae {e} [dwellers in cities.]

18 Ἐσσηνοῖς δὲ ἐπὶ μὲν θεῷ καταλείπειν φιλεῖ τὰ πάντα ὁ λόγος ἀθανατίζουσιν δὲ τὰς ψυχὰς περιμάχητον ἡγούμενοι τοῦ δικαίου τὴν πρόσοδον 19 εἰς δὲ τὸ ἱερὸν ἀναθήματα στέλλοντες θυσίας ἐπιτελοῦσιν διαφορότητι ἁγνειῶν ἃς νομίζοιεν καὶ δι᾽ αὐτὸ εἰργόμενοι τοῦ κοινοῦ τεμενίσματος ἐφ᾽ αὑτῶν τὰς θυσίας ἐπιτελοῦσιν βέλτιστοι δὲ ἄλλως [ἄνδρες] τὸν τρόπον καὶ τὸ πᾶν πονεῖν ἐπὶ γεωργίᾳ τετραμμένοι 20 ἄξιον δ᾽ αὐτῶν θαυμάσαι παρὰ πάντας τοὺς ἀρετῆς μεταποιουμένους τόδε διὰ τὸ μηδαμῶς ὑπάρξαν Ἑλλήνων ἢ βαρβάρων τισίν ἀλλὰ μηδ᾽ εἰς ὀλίγον ἐκείνοις ἐκ παλαιοῦ συνελθὸν ἐν τῷ ἐπιτηδεύεσθαι μὴ κεκωλῦσθαι τὰ χρήματά τε κοινά ἐστιν αὐτοῖς ἀπολαύει δὲ οὐδὲν ὁ πλούσιος τῶν οἰκείων μειζόνως ἢ ὁ μηδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν κεκτημένος καὶ τάδε πράσσουσιν ἄνδρες ὑπὲρ τετρακισχίλιοι τὸν ἀριθμὸν ὄντες 21 καὶ οὔτε γαμετὰς εἰσάγονται οὔτε δούλων ἐπιτηδεύουσιν κτῆσιν τὸ μὲν εἰς ἀδικίαν φέρειν ὑπειληφότες τὸ δὲ στάσεως ἐνδιδόναι ποίησιν αὐτοὶ δ᾽ ἐφ᾽ ἑαυτῶν ζῶντες διακονίᾳ τῇ ἐπ᾽ ἀλλήλοις ἐπιχρῶνται 22 ἀποδέκτας δὲ τῶν προσόδων χειροτονοῦντες καὶ ὁπόσα ἡ γῆ φέροι ἄνδρας ἀγαθούς ἱερεῖς δὲ ἐπὶ ποιήσει σίτου τε καὶ βρωμάτων ζῶσι δὲ οὐδὲν παρηλλαγμένως ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι μάλιστα ἐμφέροντες Δακῶν τοῖς πλείστοις λεγομένοις

Translation from: William Whiston, The Genuine Works of Flavius Josephus, New York: Borradaile, 1828

Original text from: Benedikt Niese, Flavii Iosephi opera, 6 vols., Berlin: Weidman, 1890

Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 5,15[73] (5,29)

On the west [of Lake Asphaltites] the Essenes flee away from the shores that are harmful, a people alone and in all the world strange above the rest, [being] without any woman, abdicating all sexual acts, without money, companioned by palms. Daily the swarm (turba) is renewed with equal multitudes, filled with huge numbers of those, wearied of life and the fluctuations of fortune, who keep to their ways of life. So through a thousand ages—incredible to say—it is an eternal people (gens), in which no one is born, so fecund is this dissatisfaction of life in others. Below these was the town of En Gedi—second only to Jerusalem [= Jericho] in fertility and groves of palms, now another ash-heap—then Masada, a fortress on a rock, and this not far from Asphaltites.

ab occidente litora esseni fugiunt usque qua nocent, gens sola et in toto orbe praeter ceteras mira, sine ulla femina, omni venere abdicata, sine pecunia, socia palmarum. in diem ex aequo convenarum turba renascitur, large frequentantibus quos vita fessos ad mores eorum fortuna fluctibus agit. ita per saeculorum milia - incredibile dictu - gens aeterna est, in qua nemo nascitur. tam fecunda illis aliorum vitae paenitentia est! infra hos engada oppidum fuit, secundum ab hierosolymis fertilitate palmetorumque nemoribus, nunc alterum bustum. inde masada castellum in rupe, et ipsum haut procul asphaltite. et hactenus iudaea est.

Translation from: C. Plini Secundi, Naturalis Historiae, trans. Charles Mayhoff, Stuttgart: Tübner, 1967

Original text from: . Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia,ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff, Lipsiae: Teubner, 1906

The Essenes, in literature & the arts

The fictionalization of the Essenes started with two semi-scholarly works by Bahrdt (1784-1792) and Venturini (1800-02). They claimed that Jesus was a member of the Essenes and that the Essenes "directed" his preaching and even helped him survive the crucifixion. What was initially a scholarly hypothesis became the content of newly discovered "secret text", a modern apocryphon, in an anonymous publication in 1849 and a visionary Gospel in 1898-1901. The Essenes became a familiar presence in Second Temple Fiction where they were also connected to other characters, like Paul of Tarsus (Moore 1916) or Spartacus (Koestler 1939).

With the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the identification of Qumran as an Essene community, the emphasis shifted on the "initiation" of Jesus and John the Baptist at Qumran and their relationship with the sect.