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Augustus (63 BCE - 14 CE) was the first Roman Emperor, from 27 BCE to 14 CE.

• This page is edited by Samuele Rocca, Israel

Overview

Augustus was the founder of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, followed by Tiberius.

Early Years

Augustus was born in Rome (or Velletri) on September 23, 63 BCE with the name Gaius Octavius. His mother, Atia, was the niece of Julius Caesar. In 59 BCE, when he was four years old, his father died. He was brought up by his mother and his stepfather, Lucius Marcius Philippus. In 52 or 51 BCE, Octavius delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother Julia, elder sister of Caesar. In 46 BCE, Octavius joined Julius Caesar in Hispania.

The Second Triumvirate

After Caesar’murder in 44 BCE, Octavius sailed to Italia, where he learnt of the contents of Caesar's will. Caesar had adopted his great-nephew Octavius as his son and main heir. Thus Octavius assumed the name Gaius Julius Caesar. Roman tradition dictated that he also append the surname Octavianus. Octavian, Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus formed a junta called the Second Triumvirate, an explicit grant of special powers lasting five years and supported by law. The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions. Mark Antony and Octavian then marched against Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, who had fled to Greece. After two battles at Philippi in Macedonia, the Caesarian army was victorious and Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinuscommitted suicide in 42 BCE. After the battle, a new arrangement was made between the members of the Second Triumvirate: while Octavian returned to Rome, Mark Antony went to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra VII. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus went on to govern Hispania and the province of Africa. Octavian, governed Italy. In 41-40 BCE he fought the so-called Perugine War against Lucius Antonius, Mark Antony's brother. He also had to fight against the son of Pompey, Sextus Pompeius, who controlled the grain supply of Sicily and Sardinia and was defeated at Naulochos in 36 BCE. Octavian gave his sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Mark Antony in 40 BC. During their marriage, Octavia Minor gave birth to two daughters, known as Antonia Major and Antonia Minor. In 37 BCE, Mark Antony deserted Octavia Minor and went back to Egypt to be with Cleopatra VII. The Roman dominions were then divided between Octavian in the West and Mark Antony in the East. Finally, in 32 BCE, the senate officially declared war on Cleopatra VII, "the Foreign Queen", to avoid the stigma of yet another civil war. The army of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII was defeated at Actium in 32 BCE. Octavian was assisted by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII also committed suicide.

Augustan Ideology

Augustus saw himself as the liberator and the restorer of the res publica from the tyranny of the factions, the political struggle between the Senatorial order and the equestrian order and the plebes, that led to bloody civil wars.His policy was a policy of balance between the opposing aristocracy or optimates on one side, and the equites and the lower classes or populares on the other. Augustus in the Italic tradition of the Roman patrician aristocracy, was thus the patronus of an oecumenical clientela, that included both the Roman people represented in all the classes, and the provincials and allies of Rome. Their relationship was ruled by the respect of the fides, or sanctified pacts. Augustus position inside the Roman political system evolved slowly. At the beginning of his rule Augustus was primus inter pares: he directed but did not dominate the Roman political system, which remained unchanged. The consuls, for example were still elected by the comitia, or the popular assemblies, although the wishes of Augustus were clear to all. His political foes could still act freely. Most of his political enemies were followers of Julius Caesar and later of Mark Antony, as Gaius Asinio Pollio and Caius Sosius. Augustus needs them, and they are included in his political system, often as magistrates. Towards the end of his rule Augustus however, although in theory still primus inter pares, directed and dominated the Roman political system as an absolute ruler. This system had thus become a veiled autocracy, the principatus; The comitia are no more called to elect the various magistrates, who are cooptated by Augustus.

Octavianus becomes Augustus

Augustus’ position in the Roman Republic after the conclusion of the civil wars evolved in two main phases, the constitutional settlements of 27 BCE and of 23 BCE. In 27 BCE the Senate bestowed on Octavianus the honorary title of Augustus. Augustus was princeps senatus, or the most important member of the Senate, with the greatest influence on the legislative body of the Roman Republic. He was also consul, thus he dominated the most important executive magistrature of the Roman Republic. Augustus legal position follows strictly the Patrician - Senatorial tradition of political power of the optimates, or the nobility, to which Augustus belong. Augustus was also Imperator, in command of the Roman Army, which he transformed definitely in a professional force, faithful to his commander, not to the Roman state. As Imperator, Augustus had the imperium pro consolare on the Imperial provinces of the Empire, where the army is stationed. In 23 BCE Augustus received from the Senate the tribunicia potestas, or tribunal power for life, without being a tribunus plebis. This position meant too that Augustus was inviolable. In this position Augustus represented both the equites and the lower classes or populares, following the tradition of the struggle for their political rights begun by demagogical leaders as the Gracchi, continued by Gaius Marius and of course Julius Caesar. Although the Senatorial aristocracy dominated the state, Augustus creates also an equestrian career for the equites in the army and in his administration. In 19 BCE Augustus received from the Senate consular power for life, imperium consulare, without assuming the consulate and the duties connected to the supreme magistrature; Thus Augustus had the same powers of the consuls, without every year being elected as such, and he could control their nominations. In 12 BCE Augustus was elected Pontifex Maximus, or head of the state Roman religion for life. In Italy, Augustus implemented a series of administrative reforms, dividing the country in eleven districts, or regiones. Around 7 BCE Augustus divided Italy into eleven regiones.

Augustus Foreign Policy

Augustus foreign policy was quite successful. It was characterized by expansion and conquests in the West. In 27-25 BCE the provinces of Gallia and Hispania were reorganized. In 16-13 BCE Augustus was in Gallia. He divided Gallia in the Provinces of Aquitania, Lugdunensis and Belgica. Soon Augustus began a policy of conquests in the West. In 15 BCE the Roman armies under Tiberius and Drusus advanced to the upper Danube. The provinces of Raetia and Noricum were created. In 13-9 BCE Pannonia was conquered by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Tiberius: the Middle Danube was reached. Afterwards the Roman armies advance to the Elbe in four campaigns. In 12-9 BCE Drusus did lead various campaigns in Germania. In 8-6 BCE Tiberius did lead further campaigns in Germania. Once more in 4 CE Tiberius was given command in Germania in a succesfull war against the Marcomanni. Yet the last years were less successful. Only in 6-9 CE. Pannonia became a Roman Province, after a revolt. In 6 CE the defeat of Publius Quinctilius Varus in Germania brought the Roman expansion to an end. Yet, by the end of his reign, the Roman Empire reached by then the Rhine – Danube borders. In the East, after the conquest of Egypt, Galatia was annexed after King Amyntas death. In 20 BCE Augustus reached a peaceful understanding with King Phraates IV of Parthia, who returned the standards captured to Marcus Licinius Crassus at Carrahae. Generally, speaking, Augustus preferred to leave most of the areas under allied rulers, as Herod the Great in Judaea, and Rhoemetalces Iin Thracia.

The Problem of Succession

The problem of Augustus’ succession came to the forefront already in 23 BCE. His first heir was Marcellus, the son of his sister, who married Julia the Elder’s Augustus daughter. After the death of Marcellus, Julia the Elder was married to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Their sons included Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar. Then, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was granted a five-year term of administering the eastern half of the Empire with the imperium of a proconsul and the same tribunicia potestas granted to Augustus. Agrippa died in 12 BCE. Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar, however, did not survive Augustus and died Lucius Caesar in 2 and Gaius Caesar in 4 CE. In 4 CE, Augusus adopted Tiberius, who eventually succeeded him as ruler at Augustus’s death in 14 CE.

Augustus, the Jews and Judaea

Augustus continued the friendly policy of his uncle, Julius Caesar, toward the Jews. Thus Augustus, recognized the Jewish communities as a collegia licita, with various privileges, following the Lex Iulia de Collegiis, dated to 7 BCE. Later Catacomb inscriptions, mainly from Monteverde, record the existence of five collegia, or Jewish communities in Augustan Rome, the Synagogue of the Hebrews, the Synagogue of the Augustenses, the Synagogue of the Agrippaeans, the Synagogue of the Herodians, and the Synagogue of Volumnius. It seems that circa 8000 Jews lived in Rome at the time of Augustus, on the main concentratted in the Suburra and, according to Philo, in the Transtiberim area (Regio XIV). Augustus was involved with Judaea from 30 BCE, when at Rhodes confirmed to Herod the territories he previously held and gave him back those given by Mark Antony to Cleopatra VII. King Herod the Great proved to be a loyal ally of the Emperor, the perfect model of the rex - cliens and socius et amicus populi romani. Thus Augustus gave him in 23-22 BCE the Districts of Trachonitis, Batanaea and Auranitis. Later in 20 BCE Augustus, while in in Syria presents Herod with the territory of Zenodorus. On the other side in 27-25 BCE Herod send 500 soldiers to Aelius Gallus, Praefectus of Egypt in his campaign against Arabia. Moreover Herod named after Augustus the cities of Sebaste in 25 BCE and Caesarea Maritima founded in 23 BCE and dedicated in 10 BCE. He also named the monumental wings of his palaces, Auguseum and Agrippeum.

Herod visited Augustus in Rome thrice, in 18-17 BCE, in 12 BCE, and in 10 BCE. Herod's sons and heirs Alexander and Aristobulus in fact went to Rome to complete their education. In 6 BCE, Antipater as well went to Rome. When Herod died in 4 BCE, his kingdom was divided among three of his sons--Herod Archelaus (etnarch of Judea), Herod Antipas (tetrarch of Galilee and Perea), and Herod Philip (tetrarch). Things did not go smoothly. In Judaea a serious revolt had to be quelled. Herod Archelaus bid to the throne was supported by Nicolaus of Damascus, but opposed by a Jewish delegation from Judaea and by Herod Antipas. Augustus in Rome hear all the deputations, and then confirmed Herod testament. In 6 CE, Herod Archelaus was deposed and Judea became a Roman province. In 6 CE Judaea became a Roman Province, governed by a praefectus under the aegis of the governor of Syria. It is in 6-7 CE, that Publius Sulpicius Quirinus made the well - known census, in occasion of the annexion of Judaea. Augustus appointed the first three governors of the region--Coponius (6-9 CE), Marcus Ambivulus (9-12 CE), and Annus Rufus (12-15 CE). Herod Antipas and Herod Philip continued the practice of dedicating their building projects to their patron.

Jesus of Nazareth was born at the time of Augustus. Later Christian tradition would develop the legend that Augustus received the annunciation of the birth of Jesus by the Sibyls.

Augustus in ancient sources

The earliest source for the history of Augustus is the Inscriptio Ancyrana. The Latin writer Suetonius wrote a biography of Augustus, the second book of the Lives of the Twelve Caesars. The Greek Historian Dio Cassius dedicated no less of eleven books, from book 45 to book 56 of his Roman History. Most of these books are conserved.--Samuele Rocca, Israel

• See Augustus (sources) -- survey of ancient sources

Augustus in literature & the arts

Christian iconography exploited the synchrony between the age of Augustus and the birth of Jesus of Nazareth, popularizing the legend that a Sibylline oracle foretold the event to the Emperor. The idea remained alive even after the Counter-Reformation prohibited the reference to non-canonical sources, and resurfaced in 19th-century neoclassicism.

Contemporary fiction rarely relates Augustus with Jewish (or Christian) characters or events.--Gabriele Boccaccini, University of Michigan.

• See Augustus (arts) -- survey of fictional works

References

• Augustus / David S. Potter / In: The Anchor Bible Dictionary (1992 Freedman), dictionary, 1:524-528

Related categories

• Roman Emperors

External links

• Wikipedia
• Jewish Encyclopedia (1906)