Category:Marcus Aurelius (subject)
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (121 – 180 CE) was the most important emperor of the Antonine dynasty. He was co-emperor with Lucius Verus, from 161 till 169 CE. He ruled alone till 180 C.E.
- This page is edited by Samuele Rocca, Israel
Overview
Marcus Aurelius was adopted by Antoninus Pius together with Lucius Verus. From 161-till 169 C.E., the period called “the Dual Principate”, Marcus Aurelius shared the direction of the Empire with Lucius Verus. The reign of Marcus Aurelius, the Emperor - Philosopher was dominated by the plague, and the wars on the Danubian borders against the Quadi and Marcomanni. In fact Marcus Aurelius spent most of his long reign away from Rome, fighting on the Danubian border, or quelling the uprising of Avidius Cassius in the East. At his death, he left the throne to his son Commodus. Marcus Aurelius wrote in Greek the Meditations, a testament of Stoic philosophy.
Early Career
Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, was the son of Marcus Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla. His father, of Spaniard origin, who reached the position of praetor, died when Marcus was a child. His sister was Annia Cornificia Faustina. After his father’death, Marcus was adopted and raised by MarcusAnnius Verus, his paternal grandfather, his mother and Lucius Catilius Severus. After the adoption from his paternal grandfather, Marcus adopted the name of Marcus Annius Verus. Marcus did not study at public schools, but encouraged by Catilius Severus, he was educated at home, as most of his contemporaries of Senatorial rank. His earliest teacher was Diognetus, who much influenced the young Marcus’ upbringing and pushed him towards Stoic philosophy. Other tutors were Alexander of Cotiae, Trosius Aper, and Tuticius Proculus, the last two his tutors of Latin. The cursus honorum of Marcus Aurelius begun in 127 CE, when he was enrolled as a knight in the equestrian order. In 128 CE, Marcus was appointed as a member of the priestly college of the Salii. In 136 CE, after he donned the toga virilis, he was appointed praefectus urbis. The same year, Hadrian had the young Marcus engaged to Ceionia Fabia, the daughter of Lucius Ceionius Commodus, who had been adopted by Hadrian as Lucius Aelius Caesar, as his successor. However, with the death of Lucius Aelius Caesar in 138 CE, Hadrian adopted Antoninus Pius as his successor, on the condition that he would adopt both Lucius Verus, the son of Lucius Aelius Caesar, and Marcus Aurelius, renamed Lucius Aurelius Verus. Antoninus Pius, when he succeeded to the throne, confirmed the succession. However Marcus broke his engagement to Ceionia Fabia and in 145 CE, he married Annia Galeria Faustina or Faustina the Younger, who was Antoninus Pius’ daughter. Marcus, after he took the toga virilis, continued his studies and began his training in oratory three tutors in Greek, under the guide of Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus, and one in Latin, Fronto, a grammaticus of North African origin. During the years of rule of Antoninus Pius, the cursus honorum of Marcus Aurelius continued. Thus in 138 CE he was appointed quaestor and he was appointed consul in 140 and 145 CE. Marcus also joined all the priestly colleges. In 147 CE Antoninus Pius bestowed on Marcus both the proconsular imperium outside Rome and the tribunicia potestas, the main formal powers of emperorship. In 161 CE, when Antoninus Pius died, Marcus Aurelius was once more appointed consul, together with Lucius Verus. In 147 CE, a daughter, [[Domitia Faustina[[, was born. She was the first of at least fourteen children. In 149 CE, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons, Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius, who did not survive long. In 150 CE, was born Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. In 151 or 153 CE, the couple had another daughter, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina. In 152 was born another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, who did not survive long. In 159 and 160 CE, were born two daughters, Fadilla and Cornificia.
Imperial Succession
When Marcus succeeded to the Imperial throne, he was granted the name Augustus and the title of Imperator, and he was appointed Pontifex Maximus. He was also given the name Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus. Although Marcus asked the Senate to share equal powers with Lucius Verus, he enjoyed more auctoritas. Marcus Aurelius shared the direction of the Empire with Lucius Verus till the latter’s death in 169 CE. One of the first acts of Marcus was to deify his predecessor Antoninus Pius. Moreover, upon his accession Marcus also devalued the denarius, whose purity sensibly decreased. In 161 CE, twins were born to the Imperial couple, T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus. Only Commodus survived and eventually succeeded his father to the Imperial throne. Marcus also to strengthen the relationship between the two co-emperors betrothed his daughter Annia Lucilla to Lucius Verus. The early years of reign, from 162 to 165 CE, were dominated by the successful war against Parthia, under the leadership of Lucius Verus, for the control over the Armenian kingdom. In 1671 CE, Vologases IV, King of Parthia, penetrated in Armenia, expelled its legitimate king, appointed by Rome, and installed his own candidate, Pacorus. In 162 CE, Lucius Verus took the command of the war. In 163 CE, Lucius Verus started the counter offensive. An army, under the leadership of Statius Priscus conquered back Armenia. The Romans appointed a new king, Gaius Iulius Sahaemus, a Roman senator of consular rank but also an Arsacid descent. However in the same year, the Parthians occupied Osroene, deposing Mannus, its king. In 165 CE, Lucius Verus mounted a counter offensive. A first army, under the leadership of Martius Verus, occupied Osroene. A second army, under the leadership of Avidius Cassius, occupied Mesopotamia, reaching Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and advanced as far as Media. The Parthians were forced to cede western Mesopotamia to the Romans. Back to Rome, Lucius Verus was awarded a triumph and the title of Armeniacus. While Lucius Verus was in the East, Marcus Aurelius ruled from Rome. The most important activity of the Emperor in the first years of rule was juridical. Marcus Aurelius left his imprint in Roman Law in three areas, the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of decuriones, or city-councillors. The most dramatic consequences of the war, was the spread of the Antonine plague, which proliferated from 165 till 180 CE. This plague, described in the writings of Galenus, was probably one of the worst epidemics in the Ancient world. Although not all the areas of the Empire were equally stricken, it seems that by 180 CE, no less than five million persons had been killed by the pandemic. Rome, the capital of the Empire, was severely stricken, and for a while no less than 2000 persons died daily. Thus the general population of Rome decreased from 1.000.000 under Trajan to no more than 650.000 in consequence of the Antonine plague, reducing the population of the city by a third. A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 CE, when a Roman informal embassy reached the Chinese court. Yet, in 168 CE, the economic situation was solid enough, that Marcus Aurelius revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity to the same value at the beginning of the reign. During the second part of his rule, from 167 till 180 CE, Marcus Aurelius fought Barbarian invaders on the Danubian border. The First Marcomanni War was fought between 167-175 C.E. Already in 162 CE the Chatti invaded Germania Superior but were repulsed. In 166 or 167 CE, the Lombards, the Ubii and the Lacringi joined forces and invaded Pannonia. The invasion was repulsed. However in 167 CE, a confederation of Vandals and Iazyges invaded Dacia and its governor, Calpurnius Proculus, was killed. Only in 168 CE, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus could organize a punitive expedition. The two co-emperors set their headquarters at Aquileia. The punitive expedition in Pannonia was successful. However back at Aquileia Lucius Verus died at the end of 168 or at the beginning of 169 CE. In 169 Marcus Aurelius together with Claudius Pompeianus, Lucilla’ second husband, prepared a further punitive expedition against the Iagyzes in Dacia. However the Barbarians invaded Lower Moesia, killing its governor, Claudius Fronto. Moreover, in 170 CE, several tribes crossed the borders and invaded the Empire. Thus the Costoboci crossed the Danube, descended the Balkans, reaching Eleusis. The Marcomanni, under the leadership Ballomar, crossed the Danube and defeated the Romans near Carnuntum. The Barbarians invasion reached Italy and they besieged Aquileia. The army of the praetorian prefect Furius Victorinus was defeated and its commander slain. The Romans mounted a counter offensive, under the leadership of Claudius Pompeianus and in 171 CE the Marcomanni had been expelled from the borders of the Empire. In the same year, the Quadi and the Iazyges] signed a peace treaty with the Romans. In 172 CE, the Romans, after they crossed the Danube, continued their offensive in the area occupied by the Marcomanni. The Roman army defeated the Marcomanni, and Marcus Aurelius could assume the title of Germanicus. In 173 CE, it was the turn of the Quadi, who had broken the treaty signed in 171 CE. After various hardships suffered by the Roman army, the Quadi were defeated. Once more in 174 CE, the Romans mounted another campaign against the Quadi, who were completely subjugated. The previous year Didius Iulianus defeated an invasion of the Chatti on the Rhine frontier. In 175 CE, Marcus Aurelius moved once more against the Iazyges and defeated them. This time the Senate bestowed on Marcus Aurelius the title of Sarmaticus. One of the consequences of the war was that in 170 CE, Marcus once more had to decrease dramatically to the previous values because of the Marcommannic wars. In 175 CE, Avidius Cassius, governor of Syria, rebelled. It seems that false news of Marcus’s death fighting against the Barbarians, prompted the rebellion. With the exception of Cappadocia and Bithynia all the Eastern provinces joined the revolt. However after slightly less than four month later, when it was obvious that Marcus was alive, Avidius Cassius was killed by his own soldiers. Marcus Aurelius, however found necessary to tour the Eastern provinces, including Achaia, where he visited Athens, and Syria – Palaestina. In 176 CE, back in Rome, Marcus celebrated a triumph together with his son Commodus on the Germans and the Sarmatians. He also began the construction of his own Forum, which included a Temple and a spiral column, in imitation of the Trajan column, which celebrated his First Marcomannic War. The Forum was completed by son Commodus. Marcus Aurelius fought the Second Marcomanni War from 178 till180 CE. In 177 CE the Quadi and the Marcomanni rebelled once more. In 178 CE Marcus Aurelius established his headquarters at Carnutum. He campaigned in the same years against the Marcomanni and in 179-180 CE against the Quadi, who were defeated first by Marcus Valerius Maximianus at Laugaricio, and then by the praetorian prefect Tarutenius Paternus. However the 17 March 180 CE, the Emperor – Philosopher breathed his last at Vindobona, probably a victim of the plague. Marcus Aurelius wrote in Greek his meditations in twelve books from 170 till 180 CE during the Marcomannic War. The purpose of this book was to serve to the Emperor as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. A central theme of the Meditations is to analyze the judgment of self and of others, developing a cosmic perspective. Moral ethic is another much important theme. Thus the author tries to focus all along the book on the ethical principle of being good to the other.
Marcus Aurelius and the Jews
Under the rule of Marcus Aurelius and of his son Commodus, the legal position of the Jews changed noticeably. Thus Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, allowed the Jews who were Roman citizens to be elected to the municipal council, the decurionate, and dispense with Pagan cultic ceremonies. Modestinus, who floruit around 250 C.E. writes in his De Excusationibus that there are some laws, confirmed by MarcusAurelius and Commodus that regulated the Jews participation in public offices, and in particular the problem of the tutela of non-Jews (See Digesta 27.1.15.6). Marcus Aurelius visited Syria-Palaestina in 175 CE, in the aftermath of the rebellion of Avidius Cassius. By then, Jews, according to Cassius Dio, served once more in the Roman army. It is possible that in this occasion Marcus Aurelius met Yehuda ha Nasi, and therefore he could be one of the possible candidates, who could maybe correspond to the figure of Antoninus, the Roman Emperor friend of Yehuda ha Nasi, mentioned in Rabbinic literature.
Marcus Aurelius in ancient sources
- Marcus Aurelius (sources) -- survey of ancient sources
Marcus Aurelius in literature & the arts
- Marcus Aurelius (arts) -- survey of fictional works
Marcus Aurelius in scholarship
- Marcus Aurelius (research) -- survey of scholarly works
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